Objectives Ancient maps, as external representations of human knowledge and tools for thin‑king, reflect human history of perception, representation and practice of the world. However, current knowledge organization methods to these diverse ancient maps are not yet capable of structurally recording the complex relationships between the representations and the concepts, practices and materials they represent. This problem is an obstacle to in-depth and systematic study of the history of cartography, especially on discussions of the formation, circulation and translation of cartographic knowledge. To address this problem, a novel ontology framework is introduced to describe knowledge of ancient maps.
Methods We propose the cognition-practice model of ancient maps, comprising five domains: Practice, material, cognition, representation, and logic. Based on this model and International Committee for Documentation （CIDOC）conceptual reference model (CRM), the proposed ontology framework can describe the relationships among the map information, including map carrier, information object, cognitive concept, event, physical thing, and digital image. To validate this framework, architectural engineering drawings from Yangshi Lei Archives in Qing Dynasty are selected as a case study.
Results The result shows that the ontology framework effectively describes the complex semantic relationships involved in 4 maps from Yangshi Lei Archives, thus revealing the flow of the conceptual world behind these drawings and the corresponding representations involved in different practices of creating Qing Ding-Ling Tomb and of communications between architects and the emperor.
Conclusions The framework facilitates the understanding of maps as representational practices and can contribute to the associated management, standardized sharing and knowledge mining of ancient maps, promoting the development of intellectual history and the digital research paradigm of ancient maps.
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